INTRODUCTION
Momordica balsamina (M. balsamina) is known as African pumpkin, Balsam pear (Eng.); Laloentjie (Afr.); Masegasegane (Sepedi); Mohodu (Sotho); Intshungu, Intshungwana yehlathi (Zulu), and Nkaka in a number of languages in southern Africa, including Xitsonga that is spoken in South Africa, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe and further Swahili, which is a common spoken language in southern Africa. It belongs to the Cucurbitaceae family and genus Momordica, which includes Momordica charantia L, Momordica foetida Schumach., Momordica cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng, Momordica tuberose (Cogn) Roxb. Synonyms for Momordica balsamina include Momordica involucrata E.Mey. ex Sond. and Momordica schinzii Cogn [1]. The term “Momordica” actually comes from the Latin “mordicus” which means “the bite”, M. balsamina has received the attention of researchers due to its bioactivity and nutritional potential [2,3]. It is an Indigenous and cultivated species in Africa, often found in tropical areas and wastelands. Momordica balsamina is used across many African countries including Nigeria, Kenya, and Tanzania where different plant parts are used as tea and poultices. The leaves can be consumed fresh or prepared like a traditional vegetable dish [4]. Traditionally, M. balsamina is used to manage diabetes, jaundice, fever, gonorrhoea, tuberculosis, and viral infections [5,6]. Anthropological research has indicated that wild fruits are often neglected in Western medicinal research and use, despite their high nutritional and medicinal values. Momordica balsamina is considered to have lost its traditional use as a food source among the Bantu people of Tanzania’s Morogoro rural area [7,8]. Momordica balsamina holds significant cultural, medicinal, and culinary. The plant is used in African cuisines as both the staple and famine food. The bitterness of the fruit is appreciated in African traditions which symbolizes resilience. Traditionally and culturally, M. balsamina symbolizes resilience healing, and survival. In some African households M. balsamina is hung in hoes and cultivated in the homestead and it is believed to offer protection against evil spirits and negative energies. The cultivation of M. balsamina, is rooted in the agricultural practices of the Tsonga, Swahili, and other Bantu people in southern Africa, particularly in regions such as northern South Africa, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe. This plant is an integral part of traditional Tsonga horticulture. Which reflects the relationship of the community with the land and their reliance on indigenous crops for sustenance, medicine, and cultural practices [5,9]. With nutrition in dense, the plant has not been given adequate attention in terms of developing a nutraceutical. Previous studies indicate that M. balsamina exhibits different biological activities and this sparked an interest in this plant in modern medicine. Different plant parts including the whole plant, leaves, roots, and fruits have ethnomedicinal uses, owing to their chemical composition. The plant has many ethnopharmacological uses which makes it a candidate for further pharmaceutical research. Figure 1 portrays different images of M. balsamina, (A) in its habitat, (B) spindle-shaped ripe fruits, and (C) yellow and deeply veined flowers.
 | Figure 1. Images portraying the M. balsamina (A) in its habitat, (B) spindle-shaped ripe fruits, and (C) yellow and deeply veined flowers. [Click here to view] |
CULTIVATION
The Bantu people typically cultivate M. balsamina in small-scale, family-owned plots or communal gardens. The plant is tropical and therefore thrives in warm temperatures with seasonal rainfall. The cultivation usually begins at the start of the rainy season, which coincides with the planting period for most traditional crops [1]. The seeds are sown directly into the soil, often in well-drained, fertile ground, where they can receive sunlight. Given its climbing nature, M. balsamina is often grown along fences, trellises, or intercropped with other crops such as maize, beans, or cassava. This intercropping system not only maximizes land use but also provides natural support for the vine to spread [4,8]. The plant is relatively low maintenance, requiring minimal intervention once established, as it is adapted to local soil and climate conditions. Harvesting of M. balsamina occurs once the fruits ripen, typically turning from green to a bright orange or red hue. The fruits, leaves, and sometimes the roots are collected, depending on the intended use. For food purposes, the young leaves and fruits are harvested and prepared as vegetables, often boiled or cooked with other ingredients. The fruits are also used in traditional medicine, particularly when they reach full maturity [8,10]. Among the Bantu people, including Tsonga people, M. balsamina is more than just a crop, it is a symbol of traditional knowledge and cultural heritage. The plant is used in various medicinal applications, including the treatment of ailments such as malaria, gastro-intestinal disorders, and skin infections. The bitter taste of the fruit, a characteristic feature, is believed to have therapeutic properties, especially in cleansing the body and improving digestion [3,4].
TAXONOMY AND DISTRIBUTION
The cultivation of M. balsamina by the Tsonga people extends across northern South Africa, particularly in the Limpopo province, where the climate and soil conditions are ideal for its growth. In Mozambique, the plant is widely grown in the southern and central regions, particularly in rural areas where traditional farming practices prevail. Similarly, in Tanzania and Zimbabwe, M. balsamina is commonly found in smallholder farms and home gardens, cultivated alongside other staple crops. Momordica balsamina, also known as balsam pear, belongs to the Cucurbitaceae family and is a straggling annual herb that can be found climbing or sprawling along the ground. The plant features stems that range from 1 to 3 m in length, varying greatly in size from very slender to becoming slightly woody at the base. Both the stem and petioles are covered with stiff hairs, and the leaves are alternate, simple, and have hairy lower surfaces, with small shingles sprouting above the apparent veins when viewed through a magnifying glass [7,10]. The fruit is a spheroid to ellipsoid berry that initially appears green with stripes of green/yellow and gradually changes to orange, turning red at maturity. Momordica balsamina is native to tropical areas in India, Southeast Asia, and Australia, although it is notably absent from within Wallace’s line. The species has been introduced to various regions, including the Americas, southern and eastern Africa, Madagascar, the Mascarene Islands, and the Arabian Peninsula. In African rural villages and towns, particularly in Zimbabwe, it is common to encounter M. balsamina growing along hedges and in gardens. The plant is actively cultivated by many people and serves as a source of food, natural remedies, and even leisure crafts [7,10,11].
TRADITIONAL USES
Ethnobotanical surveys of traditional medicinal knowledge and use were conducted and reported the use of roots of the M. balsamina against hemorrhoids as well as gonorrhoea [18]. It is noted the use of the M. balsamina plant by the local Bantu communities for a variety of purposes including food, medicine, and ritual practices. It is used as food or medicine, by many of the different Bantu tribes encountered, also with emphasis on the treatment of venereal diseases and sores [10,19,20]. Numerous records of traditional medicinal use amongst diverse ethnic groups exist in the southern African region. Both the nutritive and potential medicinal properties of the fruit of this bitter plant and their possible relation to each other are further discussed in later sections.
Central to ethnobotanical research is the recognition that different practices may be observed in different communities, as is the ubiquity of these fruits in predominantly summer-rainfall savannas. So, it is not surprising that the Bantu people, who resided as locally dispersed and isolated groups in numerous communities across the warm Limpopo valley, Nevrijezwamps, and the Okavango and Zambezi valleys, found that the fruit of the watermelon-like M. balsamina vine was an edible and sometimes medicinal source of water and nutrients. The first specific name with walnut is intended to describe the tropical origin of the plant, of Balsamaceae, a family in the order Cucurbitales, which is also the order of watermelon and cucumber. The vine producing the small watermelon-like fruit is native, having been a component of the African flora since well before the continental breakup [10].
PHYTOCHEMISTRY OF M. BALSAMINA
Momordica balsamina contains various biologically active compounds. These include saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids, glycosides, phenols, steroids, and triterpenoids. Different plant parts are used according to their chemical composition and a specific condition that needs intervention. The bark, fruits, leaves, and seeds stems contain constituents that include the alkaloids, anthocyanins, flavonoids, resins, saponins, and tannins [3,10]. The diverse phytochemistry of M. balsamina makes it have a diverse therapeutical property and its potential properties have been substantiated by numerous biological assays, indicative that Momordica balsamina is not only a nutritious food source but can be used in developing new therapeutics. Metabolites with biological activities that have been identified in Momordica balsamina include; balsamin, keampferol, quercetin, isorhamnétine, quinic acid, karavilagenin C, balsaminagenin B, cucurbalsaminone B, balsaminoside A, and karavilagenin E [3,21,22]. Table 1 shows different compounds found in M. balsamina with their relevant biological activity.
 | Table 1. Bioactive compounds associated with the pharmacological activities of M. balsamina. [Click here to view] |
PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITY AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF M. BALSAMINA
The pericarp decoction is used in many cultures to treat inflammation-related ailments, such as asthma, diabetes, and obesity (Fig. 2). Some cultures also use the fruits as a purgative to treat parasites or to facilitate childbirth and milk production [23–25]. People with diabetes are frequently recommended to take this plant over confirmed antidiabetics, such as glibenclamide, possibly due to its lower cytotoxicity [26,27]. It also protects against complications that result from ongoing hyperglycaemia, such as nephropathy or retinopathy [28,29]. A pronounced recuperative effect on the liver has also been reported. In addition, the plant has been found to have an insulin sensitizing effect, making it effective in type 2 diabetes.
 | Figure 2. Pharmacological actions and health benefits. [Click here to view] |
A leaf-rich diet alleviated obesity in rats and helped reduce body mass index in overweight or obese Bantu people. Inflammation is a common driver of obesity and associated diseases, such as insulin resistance and diabetes, as well as fatty liver disease and its many related health problems. In sum, the pharmacological actions of M. balsamina have roots in African traditional knowledge and clinical confirmations and are also in agreement with the present-day nutritional zeitgeist [30–32]. Therefore, this plant and the compounds it contains should be increasingly used to improve human health.
Momordica balsamina has proven anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hypoglycaemic, hepatoprotective, and lipid-reducing effects [33–35]. Given its medicinal and ‘therapeutic’ effects, different parts of this plant are widely used in various forms to treat or prevent many diseases (Fig. 2). Some of the great healing potential of M. balsamina is attributed to the fruit. They are rich in fibre and minerals and have a significant content of proteins and complex carbohydrates. The fruit also contains significant amounts of vitamins, mainly vitamin C and carotenes, and other compounds with known antioxidant activity [34–36].
Antibacterial activity
Momordica balsamina has been found to inhibit bacterial growth by interfering with essential metabolic processes. Flavonoids and alkaloids in the plant have been shown to inhibit bacterial enzymes critical for DNA replication, protein synthesis, and energy metabolism. By disrupting these fundamental processes, M. balsamina effectively halts bacterial growth and replication [10]. A study by Abdulhamid [37] evaluated the phytochemical composition and antibacterial activity of M balsamina leaf extracts and their fractions. The leaves were first extracted using methanol (crude extract) and further fractionated using solvents of varying polarities. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of phenols, saponins, glycosides, tannins, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, and alkaloids, while flavonoids and anthocyanins were absent [16,17]. Antibacterial activity, assessed using the agar well diffusion method, showed that the methanol crude extract and the n-butanol fraction exhibited the highest antibacterial activity against tested bacteria at both concentrations (100 mg/ml and 300 mg/ml). In contrast, the n-hexane, ethyl acetate, and aqueous fractions displayed lower antibacterial effects. The results suggest that M. balsamina leaves hold potential as a natural antibacterial agent and provide a basis for further research on antimicrobial compounds from plants [22,37]. These antibacterial properties have been described in other studies with similar findings [10,24,38].
Antidiabetic activity
Momordica balsamina has phytochemicals that have a role in regulating blood glucose levels through multiple mechanisms. One of the main ways is by enhancing insulin secretion from pancreatic β-cells, which helps improve glucose uptake by tissues, thereby lowering blood glucose levels. Momordica balsamina has been shown to improve insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues like the liver and muscles [38,39]. This improvement in insulin sensitivity is significant in facilitating efficient glucose uptake and utilization, ultimately helping to manage hyperglycemia. Another key mechanism involves the inhibition of enzymes responsible for carbohydrate metabolism, particularly α-amylase and α-glucosidase. By inhibiting these enzymes, M. balsamina slows down the breakdown of complex carbohydrates into glucose, which results in a reduced postprandial blood glucose spike [40–42]. The antioxidant properties help to combat oxidative stress, a condition that exacerbates diabetes by damaging pancreatic cells and impairing insulin function. By reducing oxidative stress, M. balsamina helps preserve the function of pancreatic β-cells and insulin activity. These combined mechanisms make M. balsamina a promising candidate for the management and treatment of diabetes, especially in traditional medicine [43]. However, more clinical studies are needed to fully understand its efficacy and safety in human populations [27,44,45].
Antiparasitic activity
Momordica balsamina is used traditionally for the treatment of malaria because of its antiparasitic and antiplasmodial activity. The antiparasitic activity of M balsamina is due to its rich composition of bioactive compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, and terpenoids. These compounds contribute to its effectiveness against a variety of parasites, including protozoa, helminths, and other parasitic organisms. The antiparasitic mechanisms of M. balsamina are primarily attributed to its ability to disrupt the life cycle of parasites, impair their mobility, and interfere with their reproductive systems [24,46,47].
One key mechanism of M. balsamina antiparasitic activity is its ability to damage the cellular membranes of parasites, leading to increased permeability and eventual cell death. Saponins, a class of compounds abundant in M. balsamina, are known to disrupt the lipid bilayers of parasitic cells, weakening their structure and function. This membrane-disrupting activity has been particularly effective against protozoan parasites, such as Plasmodium species, which are responsible for malaria. Momordica balsamina has demonstrated anthelminthic properties, making it effective against parasitic worms. Its bioactive compounds interfere with the energy metabolism of helminths, leading to paralysis and expulsion of the worms from the host. Studies have also reported that the plant’s antioxidant activity contributes to its antiparasitic action by reducing oxidative stress in the host, which is often exacerbated during parasitic infections [4,46,48]. The broad spectrum of Momordica balsamina antiparasitic effects, combined with its traditional use in treating parasitic diseases, highlights its potential as a natural antiparasitic agent, though further research is required to establish standardized doses and to confirm its efficacy in clinical settings.
Antiviral activity
Momordica balsamina has demonstrated notable antiviral activity, attributed to its diverse of bioactive compounds such as momordin. These compounds work through several mechanisms to inhibit the replication and spread of various viruses. The antiviral activity of Momordica balsamina have been studied against a range of viruses, including human immunodeficiency virus, herpes simplex virus, and influenza, among others [48]. A study by Ampitan et al. [9] investigated the prophylactic efficacy of methanolic extract of Momordica balsamina against Avian Paramyxovirus-1 in broiler chickens. Thirty 5-week-old birds were divided into six groups, including a positive control, negative control, and four groups receiving different doses (200, 250, 300, and 350 mg/kg body weight) of the extract. All birds were exposed to the virus in the seventh week, and symptoms were monitored for 21 days. Results showed that the extract, particularly at higher doses, reduced hemorrhagic liver lesions, mortality, and clinical symptoms of Newcastle Disease. The mortality rate was 20% in the group given 350 mg/kg and 40% in the group receiving 300 mg/kg. Birds treated with the extract exhibited significantly lower cholesterol and Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) levels compared to the positive control, although there were no significant changes in Aspartate transaminase levels. Lower serum ALP and Alanine transferase levels were also observed in extract-treated groups. The study concluded that M. balsamina extract has potential prophylactic activity against Avian Paramyxovirus-1 in broiler chickens [9].
Hypocholesterolemic activity
Momordica balsamina has been found to positively influence lipid profiles by reducing low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, while simultaneously increasing high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. The flavonoids and sterols present in M. balsamina contribute to this lipid-regulating effect by modulating enzymes involved in cholesterol biosynthesis and promoting the clearance of LDL from the bloodstream. The antioxidant properties play a supportive role in its hypocholesterolemic activity [2,30,34]. By reducing oxidative stress, which can contribute to the oxidation of LDL cholesterol, M. balsamina helps prevent the formation of oxidized LDL, a key factor in the development of atherosclerosis. This protection against oxidative damage further supports cardiovascular health by reducing the risk of plaque formation in blood vessels.
POTENTIAL FOR DEVELOPING PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS
Research evidence increasingly indicates that the safety and efficacy of natural remedies, including plant-based treatments, derive from ancestral and culturally inherited knowledge. Momordica balsamina has been used for generations to treat various diseases among Bantu people [45,49,50]. They administer the plant in powdered form, as a decoction, or dried sap in access points. Momordica species present a high potential for exploiting a wide range of activities such as antimicrobial, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antidiarrheal, antihelminth, and anti-inflammatory [46,50,51]. The demand for natural products for pharmaceutical applications and increases in technology for their development, production, and characterization have led various research groups to investigate the use of Indigenous plant species for their potential in producing pharmaceutical products [41,42,50].
Bioprospecting on African flora brings Indigenous knowledge and the accumulated evolutionary potential of a mega-diverse continent not yet fully characterized by science [52–54]. Traditional medicine systems have been developed over thousands of years and shaped by cultural, social, environmental, and metagenomic selection pressures. Notwithstanding their inherent value as a source of new drugs and active principles, traditional medicine as a system may offer other useful perspectives on the understanding of disease versus drug target models. Such perspectives include but are not limited to, a holistic approach to most often multifactorial diseases, the concept of duality—which includes both the beneficial and toxicological aspects of a given environmental constituent and a certain level of ethical considerations.
CONCLUSION
Momordica balsamina has the most uses among other species within the Momordica family. It is known to stimulate hunger, cure various diseases, and is generally associated with excellent health. The numerous uses of this species provide scientific evidence that it is a deeply rooted cultural crop, especially among the Bantu people in sub-Saharan Africa. The popularisation of this plant has the potential to bring extensive benefits to the communities that have hosted and developed Indigenous knowledge systems on it. The M. balsamina holds one of the most diverse uses among other cultivated Momordica species. The species has been used for food, ethnomedicinal care, and rituals, among others in sub-Saharan Africa. Its unique contribution is in its use for rituals, temple uses, and aphrodisiac services. Several products are derived from M. balsamina, including its flowers, ashes, leaves, fruits, and roots. It holds such diverse uses that whatever part is available, a product could be extracted from it. It is in the use of these parts that the ethnobotanical properties of the species become of utmost significance. It is concluded that M. balsamina is a valuable vegetable with an array of potential and actual health benefits. When translated to say that science, modern medicine, and nutrition should be more of the positive traditional know-how instead of the active arrogant handler that currently seems to have an attitude of contempt for anything traditional, less chemically modulating, or pharmaceutical.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
All authors made substantial contributions to conception and design, acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data; took part in drafting the article or revising it critically for important intellectual content; agreed to submit to the current journal; gave final approval of the version to be published; and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work. All the authors are eligible to be an author as per the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) requirements/guidelines.
FINANCIAL SUPPORT
There is no funding to report.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The authors report no financial or any other conflicts of interest in this work.
ETHICAL APPROVALS
This study does not involve experiments on animals or human subjects.
DATA AVAILABILITY
All data generated and analyzed are included in this research article.
PUBLISHER’S NOTE
This journal remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliation.
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